Brain Research, Neuroscience and Neurology

- Overview

Neuroscience is the comprehensive scientific study of the entire nervous system, including the brain, spinal cord, and neurons, while neurology is a medical specialty focused on diagnosing and treating neurological diseases and disorders. 

Brain research is a core component of neuroscience that specifically investigates the brain's complexities from a basic to a clinical level, aiming to understand brain function and develop new treatments for brain-related conditions. 

Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cytology, psychology, physics, computer science, chemistry, medicine, statistics and mathematical modeling to understand neurons, fundamental and emerging properties of glial cells and neural circuits. 

Understanding the biological basis of learning, memory, behavior, perception and consciousness has been described by Eric Kandel as an "epic challenge" for biological sciences.

Over time, the scope of neuroscience has expanded to include different methods for studying neural systems at different scales. The techniques used by neuroscientists have expanded greatly, from molecular and cellular studies of single neurons to imaging of sensory, motor, and cognitive tasks in the brain.

1. Neuroscience (The Broad Field):

• Definition: The overarching scientific field that explores the structure and function of the nervous system and brain.
• Scope: Encompasses cellular processes, how neurons communicate, cognitive functions, and behavior.
• Disciplines: Draws from various sciences, including biology, psychology, and computer science, to study the nervous system.
• Goal:To understand how the brain and nervous system work, how they develop, and what goes wrong in various disorders.

2. Neurology (The Medical Specialty):

• Definition: A medical field dedicated to the clinical diagnosis and treatment of diseases and disorders affecting the nervous system.
• Practitioners: Neurologists are medical doctors who specialize in these conditions.
• Focus: Diagnosing and managing disorders of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system.

3. Brain Research (A Subset of Neuroscience):

• Definition: The collective research activities within neuroscience focused on the brain.
• Activities: Involves laboratory experiments, studying cell samples, using specialized equipment to monitor brain activity, and developing computer models.
• Goals: To unravel the brain's complexities, understand fundamental mechanisms, and develop new treatments for mental and neurological illnesses.

Please refer to the following for more information:

• Wikipedia: Brain
• Wikipedia: Neuroscience

- Neuroscience

Neuroscience is the multidisciplinary scientific study of the nervous system, integrating biology, psychology, mathematics, and medicine to understand neurons, neural circuits, and functions like learning, memory, and behavior. 

The field utilizes a wide range of techniques, from studying individual molecules to imaging the entire brain, to investigate the biological underpinnings of complex functions, with the ultimate goal of understanding the brain and behavior from a neural perspective. 

1. What Does Neuroscience Study? 

Neuroscience explores the nervous system at various levels, including: 

• Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience: Investigates the specific molecules and the form and physiological properties of individual neurons.
• Systems Neuroscience: Studies how aggregates of neurons and functional circuits give rise to complex behaviors and higher brain functions.
• Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience: Focuses on the neural basis of cognitive functions, such as perception, learning, and memory, and the biological factors that influence behavior.
• Clinical Neuroscience: Examines disorders and diseases of the nervous system.

2. Key Disciplines Involved: 

As a multidisciplinary field, neuroscience draws from many different areas: 

• Biology: Anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, and cytology provide foundational biological knowledge.
• Mathematics: Used for mathematical modeling and computational approaches to understand brain function.
• Psychology: Explores the relationship between the nervous system and mental processes.
• Medicine: Provides insights into the diagnosis and treatment of nervous system disorders.
• Computer Science and Engineering: Used to create models and simulations of brain functions.

3. Techniques and Approaches: 

Neuroscientists employ a broad spectrum of tools and methods: 

• Experimental Techniques: Include studies of individual neurons, neural hybrid systems, and behavioral experiments.
• Computational Approaches: Involve mathematical modeling, computer simulations, and statistical analysis of brain function.
• Brain Imaging: Techniques are used to observe sensory, motor, and cognitive tasks in the brain.

4. Goals of Neuroscience: 

The overarching aim is to understand the biological basis of behavior, learning, memory, perception, and consciousness. Researchers strive to uncover how the nervous system develops, functions, and gives rise to the complex phenomena we associate with the human mind.

- The Nervous System

The nervous system, composed of the central and peripheral divisions, manages all body functions by receiving sensory information, transmitting it via the spinal cord and nerves, and processing it in the brain to generate responses and control internal processes through electrical and chemical signals between cells. 

Neuroscience, an interdisciplinary field, studies the nervous system's structure and function by integrating research from various sciences like biology, medicine, and computer science. 

1. Function of the Nervous System: 

• Receives information: Sensory organs gather information from the environment.
• Transmits information: Nerves carry this information to the spinal cord and then to the brain.
• Processes information: The brain interprets and makes sense of the incoming signals.
• Controls actions: The nervous system directs muscle movement and other body reactions.
• Manages internal functions: It controls automatic functions like breathing and digestion.
• Communicates: It uses electrical and chemical signals to communicate between cells, allowing for quick transmission of information.

2. Divisions of the Nervous System: 

The nervous system consists of two main parts:

• Central Nervous System (CNS): This includes the brain and spinal cord, which are responsible for processing and integrating information.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): This system comprises all the nerves outside the CNS, acting as the communication network between the CNS and the rest of the body.

3. Interdisciplinary Nature of Neuroscience: 

Neuroscience is a broad field that draws from many other sciences to understand the nervous system. These include:

• Biology: Studying the biological structures and processes of the nervous system.
• Medicine: Focusing on neurological disorders and their treatments.
• Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence: Developing computational models of brain function and creating intelligent systems.
• Psychology: Investigating the brain's role in thought, behavior, and cognition.
• Engineering and Robotics: Designing prosthetics and other technologies that interact with the nervous system.
• Physics and Mathematics: Analyzing the electrical and chemical properties of neurons and neural networks.

- Neurons and Neurogenesis

Neurons are nerve cells that send messages throughout the body, allowing you to do everything from breathing to talking, eating, walking and thinking. Until recently, most neuroscientists (scientists who study the brain) believed that we were born with all the neurons we will ever have. 

As children, we may grow new neurons that help build pathways called neural circuits, which act as information highways between different areas of the brain. However, scientists believe that once neural circuits are in place, adding any new neurons can change the flow of messages and disrupt the brain's communication system.

Neurogenesis is the process of forming new neurons in the brain. Neurogenesis is critical during embryonic development but also continues to occur in certain brain regions after birth and throughout life. 

The mature brain has many specialized functional areas, as well as neurons that are structurally and connected differently. For example, the hippocampus, a brain region that plays an important role in memory and spatial navigation, alone contains at least 27 different types of neurons.

The incredible diversity of neurons in the brain is the result of regulated neurogenesis during embryonic development. During this process, neural stem cells differentiate into any of several specialized cell types at specific times and areas of the brain.

Many aspects of neurogenesis in the adult brain remain unclear, including how it affects the brain and its functions. Still, scientists are interested in current research on neurogenesis and the possible role of new neurons in learning and memory in the adult brain.

[University of Oxford]

- Neurology

Neurology is a medical specialty focused on studying, diagnosing, and treating disorders of the nervous system, which includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. A neurologist is a doctor specializing in this field and addresses conditions such as stroke, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, brain tumors, and dementias like Alzheimer's. While neurology itself is a non-surgical field, a neurologist can work alongside a neurosurgeon, the surgical counterpart, to provide comprehensive patient care. 

1. What Neurologists Do: 

Diagnose and Treat:

Neurologists diagnose and treat a wide range of disorders affecting the nervous system, including: 

• Vascular disorders: Such as stroke.
• Movement disorders: Like Parkinson's disease.
• Epilepsy: And other seizure disorders.
• Infections and autoimmune diseases: Including brain infections and multiple sclerosis.
• Headaches: Such as migraines.
• Dementias: Like Alzheimer's disease.
• Brain injuries: And other traumatic conditions.

2. Research:

• Neurologists may also be involved in clinical research, clinical trials, and basic or translational research to advance understanding and treatment of neurological conditions.

3. Neurological Conditions and Research Areas: 

Neurological research can cover many aspects of the nervous system, including:

• Brain and nerve function
• Specific neurological disorders
• Neurological conditions such as epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's, and multiple sclerosis
• Brain tumors and cancer
• Brain and spinal cord injuries
• Treatments for paralysis
• Electrophysiology (the study of the electrical properties of cells and tissues)
• Body Mass Index (BMI), though this is likely in relation to its effects on neurological health, as detailed in the provided text.

- The Human Brain

The human brain is a biological organ, weighing about three pounds (or 1.4 kg), that determines our behaviors, thoughts, emotions and consciousness. 

The human brain consumes approximately 20% of the oxygen entering the body. While it only accounts for 2% of the body's total weight, the brain consumes a significant amount of energy, and therefore consumes a significant portion of the body's oxygen. 

The human brain is composed of approximately 75% water. Since water consists of oxygen and hydrogen, a substantial portion of the brain's weight is attributed to oxygen.

With the expensive energy demand, the brain enables us to perceive and act upon the external world, as well as reflect on our internal thoughts and feelings. 

The brain is actually never at ‘rest’. Brain activities continue around the clock, ranging from functions enabling human–environment interactions to housekeeping during sleep, including processes such as synaptic homeostasis and memory formation. 

Whereas one could argue that sciences in the last century were dominated by physics and molecular biology, in the current century one of our major challenges is to elucidate how the brain works. A full understanding of brain functions and malfunctions is likely the most demanding task we will ever have.

- Brain Research

The brain weighs only three pounds, yet it is the most complex object in the solar system.

Brain research studies the structure and function of the human brain and nervous system. It aims to understand the biological basis of learning, memory, behavior, perception, and consciousness. 

There are several subfields of brain research: 

• Neuroscience: Studies the brain and its impact on behavior and cognitive functions. It also focuses on what happens to the nervous system when people have neurological, psychiatric, and neurodevelopmental disorders.
• Cognitive psychology: Also called brain science, this field studies how the human brain works. It applies psychological science to understand how we perceive events and make decisions.

Researchers use a variety of neuroimaging tools to study the brain, including: 

• Computed tomography (CT) scans
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

- Brain Science

Brain science, a field within neuroscience, studies the brain, a complex organ central to the nervous system that controls thought, memory, emotion, and bodily functions. The brain consists of billions of interconnected neurons and supportive glial cells, which communicate through axons via electrical and chemical signals. In humans, this intricate network of neurons enables complex functions like interpreting senses, initiating movement, and regulating vital processes, though the brain develops gradually and is only partly determined by genetics. 

1. The Brain's Role: 

• Command Center: The brain serves as the central processing unit for the entire nervous system.
• Information Processing: It interprets sensory input, processes memories, and initiates movements.
• Bodily Regulation: It is essential for regulating a vast array of bodily functions, including breathing, hunger, and the contraction of muscles.
• Emotional and Cognitive Control: The brain is the seat of emotions, thought, personality, and consciousness.

2. Brain Structure and Function: 

• Neurons and Glia: The brain is composed of billions of specialized cells called neurons that transmit signals, and glial cells that provide crucial support functions.
• Communication: Neurons communicate via long fibers called axons, transmitting signals as action potentials to other neurons or target cells.
• Synaptic Connections: Each neuron is connected to thousands of other neurons through synapses, forming complex networks that facilitate communication.
• The Cerebral Cortex and Cerebellum: In humans, the cerebral cortex contains billions of neurons, while the cerebellum contains a significantly larger number of neurons, highlighting the brain's immense complexity.

3. Brain Development: 

• Gradual Development: A healthy brain is not fully formed at birth but develops through an intricately orchestrated sequence of stages, starting from a simple structure in the embryo.
• Neural Activity and Pruning: Axons in many brain regions initially overgrow and are later pruned based on neural activity, a process that refines the connections and contributes to the brain's development.
• Gene-Environment Interaction: While genes play a role, the final synaptic network is partly shaped by external factors and neural activity.

- The Human Brain Anatomy

The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body. It is made up of more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses. 

The brain is made up of many specialized areas that work together:

• The cortex is the outermost layer of brain cells. Thinking and voluntary movements begin in the cortex.
• The brain stem is between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. Basic functions like breathing and sleep are controlled here.
• The basal ganglia are a cluster of structures in the center of the brain. The basal ganglia coordinate messages between multiple other brain areas.
• The cerebellum is at the base and the back of the brain. The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance.

The brain is also divided into several lobes:

• The frontal lobes are responsible for problem solving and judgment and motor function.
• The parietal lobes manage sensation, handwriting, and body position.
• The temporal lobes are involved with memory and hearing.
• The occipital lobes contain the brain's visual processing system.

The brain is surrounded by a layer of tissue called the meninges. The skull (cranium) helps protect the brain from injury. 

- Computational Neuroscience (CNS)

Computational neuroscience (CNS) is the field of study in which mathematical tools and theories are used to investigate brain function. CNS can also incorporate diverse approaches from electrical engineering, computer science and physics in order to understand how the nervous system processes information.

Computational neuroscienc (CNS)e is a field of study that uses mathematics, computer science, and other tools to understand how the brain functions:

• Methods: Researchers use mathematical models, computer simulations, and statistical analyses to study the brain, nervous system, and behavior.
• Topics: Researchers ask questions about how the brain stores memories, how it makes decisions, and how it processes information.
• Approaches: Researchers use a variety of approaches, including creating neural hybrid systems that combine biological neurons with computer-simulated components.
• Background: Researchers in this field come from a range of backgrounds, including biology, psychology, physics, mathematics, statistics, computer science, and engineering.
• Education: Most computational neuroscientists have a Ph.D.

- The Internet of Sensing (IoS)

The Internet of Sensing (IoS) is a concept that builds upon the Internet of Things (IoT) by expanding beyond simple device communication to encompass a full range of human sensory experiences, such as touch, sight, sound, and smell. 

While IoT focuses on a network of physical objects with embedded sensors for data collection and control, IoS focuses on making digital interactions feel as real and multi-sensory as physical ones by using advanced sensor-actuator systems.

1. Conceptual relationship: IoT vs. IoS: 

While there are similarities, Internet of Sensing (IoS) is a more advanced and immersive evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT). 

The primary difference is their fundamental purpose: IoT is for data collection and exchange, while IoS focuses on creating multi-sensory, digital experiences. 

• IoT is foundational: It's the underlying infrastructure that enables IoS. Think of IoT as the digital nervous system that connects devices and collects data.
• IoS is experiential: It uses and builds upon the network created by IoT to offer new, immersive, and sensory-rich experiences for humans.
• The "things" versus the "senses": IoT is concerned with the connection of "things," while IoS is focused on connecting and replicating the "senses" for humans through technology.

2. Real-world examples of IoS: